Marijuana's religious context at the Arad shrine, says Arie, is extremely clear: The two altars were found on a staircase that leads to the innermost sanctum of the shrine, which is referred to as the holy of holies. (That term is in reference to a similar area found within the ancient Temple of Jerusalem. The holy of holies was a most sacred space, and can only be entered by the Israelite high priest.)

The fact that the cannabis was found on an altar in the Arad shrine's holy of holies helps confirm its religious nature, says Arie.

“I don’t think there is any doubt about the cultic context of the find,” says Arie. “Ecstasy or a religious state of consciousness was part of the cult of Judah,” he says.

But they also found evidence of animal dung, suggesting that cannabis resin was mixed with feces to promote burning.